Mineral and Energy Resources

2.1 Core concepts

• A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties. India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral resources due to its varied geological structure; bulk of valuable minerals are of pre-Palaeozoic age and associated with metamorphic and igneous rocks of peninsular India. (NCERT §Intro, p. 53)
• Classification (Fig. 5.1, p. 53):
• Metallic → Ferrous (iron ore, manganese, chromite — those with iron content) and Non-ferrous (copper, bauxite, gold — without iron content).
• Non-metallic → Fuel/mineral fuels (coal, petroleum — organic origin, derived from buried animal and plant life) and Other non-metallics (mica, limestone, graphite — inorganic origin).
• Three characteristics of minerals: (i) uneven distribution over space; (ii) inverse relationship between quality and quantity — good quality minerals are less in quantity than low-quality ones; (iii) all minerals are exhaustible — they take long geological time to develop and cannot be replenished; they have "no second crop" and must be conserved. (NCERT p. 54) Distribution of Minerals in India
• Most metallic minerals occur in the peninsular plateau region in old crystalline rocks. Over 97% of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum reserves lie in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High (offshore Arabian Sea); newer reserves have been located in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins. Most major mineral resources lie to the east of a line linking Mangaluru and Kanpur. (NCERT §Distribution, p. 54)
• Three mineral belts:
• (i) North-Eastern Plateau — covers Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh; varied minerals — iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica — the reason the major iron-and-steel industry is located here. (p. 54)
• (ii) South-Western Plateau — extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala; rich in ferrous metals and bauxite, also high-grade iron ore, manganese and limestone; lacks coal except Neyveli lignite. Less diversified than the NE belt. Kerala has monazite and thorium; bauxite clay; Goa has iron ore. (p. 54)
• (iii) North-Western Region — extends along the Aravali in Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat; minerals associated with the Dharwar system of rocks. Copper and zinc are major; Rajasthan is rich in sandstone, granite, marble; extensive gypsum and Fuller's earth; dolomite and limestone for cement; Gujarat known for petroleum. Both Gujarat and Rajasthan have rich salt sources. (p. 54)
• Himalayan belt (fourth belt) — copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, tungsten on both eastern and western parts; Assam valley has mineral oil deposits; Mumbai High off the Mumbai coast. (NCERT pp. 54-55) Iron Ore
• India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. The two main types found are haematite and magnetite. Indian ore has great demand in the international market due to its superior quality. Iron ore mines lie close to coal fields in the NE plateau region — adding to their advantage. (NCERT §Iron Ore, p. 55)
• About 95% of total reserves are in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Key mines:
• Odisha — Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj); Kiruburu (Kendujhar); Bonai (Sundergarh).
• Jharkhand — Noamundi, Gua in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts (some of the oldest iron-ore mines).
• Chhattisgarh — Durg, Dantewara, Bailadila; Dalli, Rajhara in Durg.
• Karnataka — Sandur-Hospet area of Ballari district; Baba Budan hills and Kudremukh in Chikkamagaluru district; parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg, Tumakuru.
• Maharashtra — Chandrapur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri.
• Telangana — Karimnagar, Warangal.
• Andhra Pradesh — Kurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur.
• Tamil Nadu — Salem, Nilgiris.
• Goa has emerged as an important producer. (NCERT p. 55) Manganese
• Used in smelting of iron ore and manufacturing ferro-alloys. Mainly associated with the Dharwar system.
• Madhya Pradesh and Odisha are the leading producers. Major Odisha mines: Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir.
• MP belt: Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla-Jhabua districts.
• Karnataka: Dharwar, Ballari, Belagavi, Shivamogga, Chitradurg, Tumakuru.
• Maharashtra: Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri.
• Minor producers — Telangana, Goa, Jharkhand. (NCERT pp. 55-57) Bauxite
• Ore for aluminium; deposits formed by laterite-weathering. Odisha is the largest producer — Kalahandi, Sambalpur leading; Bolangir and Koraput rising.
• Jharkhand — Lohardaga patlands.
• Gujarat — Bhavanagar, Jamnagar.
• Chhattisgarh — Amarkantak, Katni-Jabalpur.
• MP — Balaghat.
• Maharashtra — Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune, Kolhapur. (NCERT p. 57) Copper
• Indispensable in the electrical industry — wires, electric motors, transformers, generators. Reserves are meagre, making conservation important.
• Leading districts: Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (MP), Jhunjhunu and Alwar (Rajasthan).
• Minor sources: Agnigundala (Guntur, AP), Chitradurg and Hasan (Karnataka), South Arcot (TN). (NCERT p. 57) Mica
• Important non-metallic for electrical and electronic industries.
• Jharkhand — 150 km belt, 22 km wide in the lower Hazaribagh plateau — high-quality mica.
• Andhra Pradesh — Nellore mines (best-quality mica).
• Rajasthan — Jaipur to Bhilwara, around Udaipur (320 km belt).
• Other producers — TN, West Bengal, MP, Karnataka, Kerala (Alleppey), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), West Bengal (Purulia, Bankura). (NCERT p. 57) Coal
• Occurs in Gondwana (older, higher grade) and Tertiary (younger, lignite) deposits. About 80% of coal deposits in India are bituminous and non-coking.
• Gondwana coal in Damodar Valley — Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura. Jharia is the largest coal field, followed by Raniganj.
• Other Gondwana fields — Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone valleys. Singrauli (MP, extending to UP), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Talcher and Rampur (Odisha), Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander (Maharashtra), Singareni (Telangana), Pandur (AP).
• Tertiary coal in NE — Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong, Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur, Nazira in upper Assam; Namchik-Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh); Kalakot (J&K).
• Lignite (brown coal) — Neyveli (TN), Puducherry, Gujarat, J&K. (NCERT §Coal, p. 59) Petroleum
• Crude oil occurs in tertiary sedimentary rocks. Often called "liquid gold" in the NCERT Do-You-Know box because of its scarcity and diversified uses. Systematic exploration began after ONGC was set up in 1956; before that, Digboi (Assam) was the only producing region.
• Assam — Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran (the oldest oil-producing state).
• Gujarat — Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba, Lunej.
• Mumbai High — discovered in 1973, production commenced 1976; lies 160 km off Mumbai.
• New finds — oil and natural gas in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins (east coast).
• Refineries are of two types — field-based (e.g., Digboi) and market-based (e.g., Barauni). (NCERT §Petroleum, p. 59) Natural Gas
• Found with petroleum; used as domestic/industrial fuel, for power generation, fertiliser manufacture, and as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and PNG (Piped Natural Gas).
• Major reserves — Mumbai High and allied west-coast fields, Cambay basin, Krishna-Godavari basin.
• HVJ pipeline (Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur) is the main cross-country gas pipeline shown in Fig. 5.4 (p. 60). Nuclear Energy
• The key minerals are uranium and thorium.
• Uranium occurrences: Dharwar rocks; Singhbhum copper belt (Jharkhand) is the principal source; also Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan); Durg (Chhattisgarh); Bhandara (Maharashtra); Kullu (HP).
• Thorium: mainly from monazite and ilmenite sands of Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts; richest monazite at Palakkad and Kollam (Kerala); also near Visakhapatnam (AP) and the Mahanadi delta (Odisha).
• Atomic Energy Commission set up in 1948; Atomic Energy Institute, Trombay (1954) was renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1967.
• Important nuclear power projects: Tarapur (Maharashtra) — first; Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan); Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu); Narora (Uttar Pradesh); Kaiga (Karnataka); Kakarapara (Gujarat). (NCERT §Nuclear, pp. 60-61) Non-Conventional Energy Sources
• Solar Energy — both photovoltaic technology (direct conversion to electricity) and solar-thermal technology. NCERT states solar thermal is 7% more effective than coal/oil and 10% more effective than nuclear. Western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan) has greater solar potential. (NCERT §Solar, p. 61)
• Wind Energy — pollution-free and inexhaustible; favourable in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka. (NCERT §Wind, p. 63)
• Tidal and Wave Energy — large tidal waves along the west coast of India give great potential for tidal energy, not yet utilised. (NCERT §Tidal/Wave, p. 63)
• Geothermal Energy — heat from earth's magma and geyser hot water; a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh. (NCERT §Geothermal, p. 63)
• Bio-energy — from agricultural, municipal and industrial wastes; helps waste disposal + electricity + cooking gas (biogas) + bio-fertiliser. Okhla (Delhi) is the cited project converting municipal waste into energy. (NCERT §Bio-energy, p. 64) Conservation
• All conventional mineral and energy resources are exhaustible — must be conserved and not misused.
• Alternative non-conventional sources (solar, wind, wave, geothermal) are inexhaustible and should be developed to substitute exhaustible resources.
• Recycling of metals — especially copper, lead and zinc whose reserves are meagre — and use of scrap is critical. Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced. (NCERT §Conservation, p. 64)

2.2 Definitions to memorise

2.3 Diagrams / processes to remember

• Fig. 5.1 — Classification of Minerals (p. 53): Minerals → Metallic (Ferrous/Non-ferrous) and Non-metallic (Fuel/Other). The branching is the canonical map-the-mineral CUET item.
• Fig. 5.2 — India: Metallic Minerals (Ferrous) (p. 56): Iron ore fields and manganese symbols across Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh, Kendujhar, Durg, Bailadila, Ballari, Chitradurg, Kudremukh, Goa; iron-ore exporting ports — Paradwip, Visakhapatnam, Marmagao, Mangaluru.
• Fig. 5.3 — India: Minerals (Non-Ferrous) (p. 58): Copper at Khetri, Alwar, Bhilwara, Singhbhum, Balaghat, Hazaribagh, Udaipur; Bauxite at Katni, Amarkantak, Bilaspur, Malkala Hill, Koraput.
• Fig. 5.4 — India: Conventional Energy Resources (p. 60): Coal fields and mines (Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Korba, Singrauli, Talcher, Singareni, Neyveli); oil fields (Mumbai High, Bassien, Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Digboi, Moran, Naharkatia); HVJ pipeline route from Hajira through Vijaipur to Jagdishpur.
• Fig. 5.5 — India: Oil Refineries (p. 62): Digboi, Numaligarh, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Paradwip, Visakhapatnam, Tatipaka, Chennai, Nagapattinam, Cochin, Mangaluru, Mumbai, Koyali, Jamnagar, Vadinar, Bina, Mathura, Panipat, Bathinda.
• Three-belt mental map: Belt 1 (NE) — Chhotanagpur + Odisha + WB + Chhattisgarh = iron + coal + manganese + bauxite + mica. Belt 2 (SW) — Karnataka + Goa + TN uplands + Kerala = high-grade iron + manganese + limestone + Kerala thorium. Belt 3 (NW) — Aravali Rajasthan + Gujarat = copper + zinc + sandstone + gypsum + Gujarat petroleum + salt.
• Coal classification flow: Coal → Gondwana (Damodar valley, Jharia largest, Raniganj 2nd, 80% bituminous non-coking) and Tertiary (Assam-Meghalaya brown coal, Neyveli lignite). Energy use by industry, railways and thermal power.
• Petroleum refinery sequence: Crude oil from sedimentary basin → pipeline / tanker → field-based refinery (Digboi) OR market-based refinery (Barauni) → petrol, diesel, kerosene, naphtha, bitumen → end-users.
• Nuclear energy chain: Uranium (Singhbhum/Jaduguda) + Thorium (Kerala monazite) → BARC R&D → fuel rods → reactors at Tarapur (1st) + Rawatbhata + Kalpakkam + Narora + Kaiga + Kakarapara → electricity.

2.4 Common confusions / NTA trap points

• Mumbai High year confusion: Discovered 1973, production commenced 1976 — NTA often swaps these years (1970/1973 distractor common).
• Largest vs leading producers: Odisha is the largest producer of bauxite; Jharia is the largest coal field, followed by Raniganj; MP and Odisha lead in manganese; Odisha leads in iron ore.
• Iron ore types: India's main iron ores are haematite and magnetite — not limonite or siderite (common distractors).
• Nuclear plants vs uranium mines: Tarapur, Kalpakkam, Narora, Kaiga, Kakarapara, Rawatbhata are power stations; Singhbhum, Jaduguda, Udaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu are uranium mineral sources.
• Conventional vs non-conventional: Nuclear is conventional per NCERT; solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biomass are non-conventional. Hydel is renewable but commonly grouped with conventional in exercises.
• First atomic power station: Tarapur (Maharashtra) — not Kalpakkam or Narora.
• Neyveli is lignite (Tertiary), not Gondwana coal — exam favourite.
• Petroleum "liquid gold" reason: scarcity AND diversified uses; not "because of its colour" or "because it must be refined."
• 97% of coal reserves are in Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari valleys — not Cauvery or Narmada.
• Most major minerals lie east of the Mangaluru-Kanpur line, not west — students often invert.
• Manganese is associated with the Dharwar system, not Gondwana.
• Mica's best quality comes from Nellore (AP); Jharkhand has the largest belt (Hazaribagh, 150 km × 22 km).
• BARC = Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, renamed in 1967 (from the 1954 Atomic Energy Institute, Trombay) — not founded in 1967.
• Geothermal plant: Manikaran, HP — not Tarapur or Kalpakkam.
• Bio-energy waste-to-energy demo: Okhla, Delhi — not Mumbai or Chennai.
• Solar thermal effectiveness: 7% more than coal/oil; 10% more than nuclear — specific NCERT figures, often distorted.

2.5 Key data table (NCERT figures only)