Contemporary South Asia

2.1 Core concepts

The expression "South Asia" conventionally includes seven countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka; Afghanistan and Myanmar are sometimes added; China is a key player but is not part of the region. The Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal to the south, west and east give South Asia a geographical insulation that has produced striking linguistic, social and cultural distinctiveness (NCERT §What is South Asia?, p. 30).

The central narrative is the region's uneven democratic trajectory. India and Sri Lanka have operated democracies continuously since independence. Pakistan and Bangladesh have alternated between civilian and military rule, with Bangladesh remaining democratic in the post-Cold War period. Nepal was a constitutional monarchy till 2006; the monarchy was abolished in 2008 and Nepal became a democratic republic; a new constitution was adopted in 2015. Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy and emerged as a multi-party democracy in 2008 under royal leadership. The Maldives was a Sultanate till 1968, became a presidential republic, and in June 2005 the parliament voted unanimously to introduce a multi-party system; the MDP won the 2018 elections (NCERT pp. 30–31).

NCERT then presents a remarkable empirical finding from a SDSA (State of Democracy in South Asia) survey of over 19,000 respondents across the five large South Asian countries: there is widespread popular support for democracy across rich and poor, rural and urban, religious and secular respondents — directly challenging the older Western view that democracy requires economic prosperity (NCERT p. 31).

Pakistan's political trajectory (NCERT §The Military and Democracy in Pakistan, pp. 32–33) shows the most volatile pattern. After Pakistan framed its first constitution, General Ayub Khan, and then Yahya Khan, ruled. The Bhutto government ran from 1971 to 1977; he was ousted by General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977; an elected government under Benazir Bhutto took office in 1988; political competition between the PPP and Muslim League continued until General Pervez Musharraf removed Nawaz Sharif in 1999; Musharraf got himself elected President in 2001; and democratically elected leaders have ruled since 2008. NCERT identifies four factors behind Pakistan's failure to build stable democracy: the social dominance of military, clergy and landowning aristocracy; the conflict with India strengthening pro-military groups; the lack of genuine international support for democracy; and US/Western backing of military rule on grounds of "global Islamic terrorism" fears and nuclear arsenal concerns.

Bangladesh (NCERT §Democracy in Bangladesh, pp. 33–35) was part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman led the autonomy movement; the Awami League swept the East Pakistan polls in 1970; Yahya Khan's army crackdown triggered a massive refugee crisis; the December 1971 Indo-Pak war ended with Pakistani surrender and Bangladesh's independence. Bangladesh's constitution declared faith in secularism, democracy and socialism; Mujib amended it in 1975 to a presidential system and banned all parties except the Awami League; he was assassinated in August 1975; Ziaur Rahman formed the BNP and won the 1979 polls but was later assassinated; Lt Gen H.M. Ershad's rule ended with mass protests in 1990; multi-party representative democracy has run since the 1991 elections.

Nepal (NCERT §Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal, pp. 35–36) was a Hindu kingdom that became a constitutional monarchy through the 1990 democratic constitution. A Maoist insurrection spread through the 1990s. In 2002, the king abolished parliament; in April 2006, massive protests led by a Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the Maoists and civil society forced the king to restore the House of Representatives; a Constituent Assembly drafted a new constitution; Nepal became a democratic republic in 2008; a new constitution was adopted in 2015.

Sri Lanka (NCERT §Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka, pp. 36–37) has retained democracy since 1948 independence; politics was dominated by Sinhala-majority forces hostile to the Tamils who had migrated from India. Militant Tamil nationalism led by the LTTE from 1983 fought for a separate "Tamil Eelam"; LTTE controlled the north-east at one stage; the LTTE was vanquished in 2009. Despite the long conflict, Sri Lanka has registered considerable economic growth, has had the highest per capita GDP in the region for many years, was the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy, and has maintained continuous democracy.

Inter-state relations. India-Pakistan conflicts (NCERT pp. 37–38) include the wars of 1947–48 and 1965 over Kashmir (the 1947–48 war split Kashmir along the Line of Control); the 1971 war which was decisive but did not settle Kashmir; the contested Siachen Glacier; the post-1998 nuclear arms race following the Pokhran (India) and Chagai Hills (Pakistan) tests; the Indian charge of Pakistan-supported low-intensity militancy in Kashmir and earlier in Khalistan; the alleged ISI use of Bangladesh and Nepal as bases for anti-India operations; and Pakistan's reciprocal accusation that India foments trouble in Sindh and Balochistan.

Water disputes (NCERT pp. 38–39) are managed through pioneering treaties. India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960 with World Bank mediation; it has survived every military conflict. The Sir Creek (Rann of Kutch) demarcation remains unresolved, with implications for sea resources. India–Bangladesh tensions over Ganga and Brahmaputra waters have been partly addressed by the 1996 Farakka Treaty for sharing of Ganga waters, and by the 2015 exchange of enclaves.

India-Nepal has the unusual feature of a treaty allowing citizens of each country to travel and work in the other without visa or passport (NCERT §India and its Other Neighbours, p. 40). Tensions over Nepal–China warmth, Indian dissatisfaction with Nepal's response to anti-Indian elements, and the Maoist movement (seen as a security concern given India's Naxalite belt) coexist with strong trade, water and electricity cooperation. India-Sri Lanka ties were stress-tested by the 1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Accord and the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) from 1987 to 1990; the IPKF withdrew in 1989 without achieving its objective; India later adopted a "disengagement" policy on Sri Lanka's internal issues; the Indo-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement of 1998 and post-tsunami reconstruction help restored warmth. India-Bhutan has been remarkably conflict-free; the Bhutanese monarch's drive to weed out north-east Indian militants from Bhutanese territory helped India; India runs large hydroelectric projects there and is Bhutan's biggest source of development aid. India-Maldives ties have been warm; in November 1988, India sent its air force and navy to foil a Tamil mercenary attack from Sri Lanka on the Maldives.

The final substantive section concerns regional cooperation. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded with the Charter signed in December 1985 at the first summit in Dhaka. Persistent political differences have limited its success. The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 2004 at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad and came into effect on 1 January 2006. Its aim is the lowering of trade tariffs; smaller neighbours fear it will allow India to dominate their markets, while India argues it will yield economic gains and improved political cooperation (NCERT §Peace and Cooperation, pp. 42–43).

External powers. China–India ties improved over the last decade; economic ties have multiplied since 1991; but China's strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant. The United States has deepened its engagement post-Cold War, working as a moderator in India-Pakistan ties; the large South Asian diaspora and the region's markets enhance American interest. NCERT's concluding argument is that South Asia's future as a conflict-prone zone or as a coherent regional bloc depends primarily on its own people and governments, not on outside powers.

2.2 Definitions to memorise

2.3 Diagrams / processes to remember

• HDR 2018 development indicators table comparing Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka with the world and developing-country averages — Sri Lanka tops on life expectancy, literacy, GDP per capita and HDI rank (76); Pakistan is lowest on HDI (150) (NCERT, p. 31).
• "Timeline of South Asia since 1947" — key dates: 1947 Partition; 1948 Sri Lanka independence and first Indo-Pak Kashmir conflict; 1954-55 Pakistan joins SEATO and CENTO; 1960 Indus Waters Treaty; 1962 India-China border war; 1965 Indo-Pak war; 1966 Tashkent; 1971 Bangladesh liberation and Indo-Soviet Treaty; 1972 Simla; 1974 India's first nuclear test; 1985 SAARC Charter in Dhaka; 1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Accord and IPKF; 1988 Maldives coup foiled; 1996 Farakka; 1998 nuclear tests and Indo-Sri Lanka FTA; 1999 Lahore bus diplomacy and Kargil; 2001 Agra Summit; 2004 SAFTA; 2007 Afghanistan joins SAARC; 2014 18th SAARC Summit Kathmandu (NCERT pp. 32).
• SDSA bar-graphs based on interviews with 19,000+ ordinary citizens in the five big South Asian countries showing widespread support for democracy (NCERT p. 31).
• Process map — region definition (§What is South Asia?) → democratic trajectories country-by-country (§Military and Democracy in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka) → India-Pakistan bilateral issues (§India-Pakistan Conflicts) → India and other neighbours (§India and its Other Neighbours) → SAARC and SAFTA (§Peace and Cooperation) → external powers (§Peace and Cooperation).

2.5 Key Articles / Treaties / Events

2.4 Common confusions / NTA trap points

• SAARC Charter year and SAFTA year are different — SAARC Charter signed in 1985 (Dhaka), SAFTA signed in 2004 (12th SAARC Summit, Islamabad), in force 1 January 2006.
• Nepal events: Monarchy was abolished in 2008, not in 2006; the 2006 movement only restored the House of Representatives. The new constitution was adopted in 2015.
• Pakistan timeline: General Zia removed Bhutto in 1977; Musharraf removed Nawaz Sharif in 1999; Musharraf got himself elected President in 2001; democratically elected leaders rule since 2008.
• Maldives political transition: Sultanate till 1968, then presidential republic; multi-party system introduced in June 2005, not earlier.
• The Indus Waters Treaty (1960) is with Pakistan; the Farakka Treaty (1996) is with Bangladesh — students often swap them. LTTE was vanquished in 2009.
• South Asia = seven countries — Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Afghanistan and Myanmar are sometimes added but China is NOT part of the region.
• India-Nepal visa-free travel is a treaty arrangement (NOT a free trade agreement or a defence pact).
• Bangladesh constitutional values: secularism, democracy, socialism — Mujib amended to presidential in 1975.
• SDSA survey covered the FIVE big South Asian countries with 19,000+ respondents; trap items inflate to "all seven."
• LTTE armed struggle from 1983 — NOT 1971 or 1987 (1987 is IPKF deployment).
• November 1988 Maldives intervention — Indian air force and navy responded to a Maldivian request for help.