India's External Relations

Written and reviewed by Subhra Gupta, Humanities faculty at UniDrill (M.A. Sociology, University of Delhi · 7 years teaching Humanities). Based on NCERT Political Science Class XII (Politics in India since Independence), Chapter 4.

Why did India protest at Suez but stay quiet on Hungary?

In 1956, Britain attacked Egypt over the Suez Canal, and India protested loudly. In the same year, the Soviet Union sent troops into Hungary, and India did not condemn it. To a student this looks like a double standard. To the policymakers of the time it was the working of a foreign policy that tried to judge each issue by India's own interests and principles, not by which camp was involved. This chapter explains that policy, and the wars, treaties and tests that tested it.

The setting in 1947

India became independent in a difficult international context: the Second World War had just ended, colonies were becoming free, the United Nations had been founded, and the Cold War was beginning. The Constitution points the way. Article 51 of the Directive Principles asks the state to promote international peace and security, maintain just and honourable relations between nations, respect international law and treaty obligations, and encourage settlement of disputes by arbitration.

Foreign policy reflects both domestic and external factors. At home the freedom struggle had stood for anti-colonialism, anti-racism and solidarity among Asian and African peoples. Outside, the Cold War, a rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, set the conditions.

Nehru's objectives. Jawaharlal Nehru was both Prime Minister and Foreign Minister from 1946 to 1964. He set three aims: preserve sovereignty, protect territorial integrity, and promote rapid economic development. He sought all three through non-alignment.

Two views. For the exam: non-alignment was an independent policy that kept India free of military blocs. Another reading: both superpowers sometimes saw India's positions as inconsistent, and some political parties and leaders, such as the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the Swatantra Party and B. R. Ambedkar, wanted a closer relationship with the United States. Nehru had room to pursue his approach because of his personal standing and the dominance of the Congress at the time. Why it matters: NTA tests both the definition of non-alignment and the fact that it was debated.

The Pakistan factor. Pakistan joined US-led military alliances, SEATO and CENTO. This put strain on India's relations with the United States in the 1950s, and the United States disliked India's growing partnership with the Soviet Union. The US–Pakistan link was one reason India moved closer to the Soviet Union later.

Afro-Asian unity and NAM

China: friendship, Tibet and war

India was among the first countries to recognise the communist government that took power in China in 1949. Sardar Patel warned of possible Chinese aggression, but Nehru thought a Chinese attack was highly unlikely.

Panchsheel. On 29 April 1954, Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai jointly announced the five principles of peaceful coexistence: mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference in each other's affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. The slogan "Hindi–Chini bhai bhai" captured the mood.

The border question. China claimed two areas: Aksai-Chin in Ladakh (the western sector) and much of what is now Arunachal Pradesh, then called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency, the eastern sector). Between 1957 and 1959, China occupied Aksai-Chin and built a strategic road through it.

The war of 1962: cause → effect.

Consequences at home. The war damaged national confidence and Nehru's standing. Defence Minister V. K. Krishna Menon left the cabinet. For the first time, a no-confidence motion was moved against the government in the Lok Sabha, and it survived. The Communist Party split in 1964, and the faction closer to China formed the CPI(M).

Two views. For the exam: Patel warned about China while Nehru thought an attack was very unlikely, and the war showed the limits of the Panchsheel approach. Another reading: historians continue to debate how far the setback came from misjudging intentions, how far from military preparation, and how far from the border dispute itself. Why it matters: a question may ask who held which view, not who was right.

Pause and predict: Why might a country plan a military move at a time when the world's attention is on another crisis?

Check your answer: The Chinese attack came in October 1962, the same time as the Cuban Missile Crisis, when the United States and the Soviet Union were absorbed in their own confrontation. The overlap is a fact tested often, and it also explains why neither superpower acted quickly.

Restoring ties. Full diplomatic relations were restored only in 1976. Atal Behari Vajpayee, as External Affairs Minister, visited China in 1979. Rajiv Gandhi was the first Prime Minister after Nehru to visit China, in 1988.

Pakistan: the wars and the agreements

Conflict with Pakistan began over Jammu and Kashmir soon after Partition. In 1947 the matter was referred to the United Nations.

The war of 1971: cause → effect. In Pakistan's first general election, in 1970, the verdict was split: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto led in the West, and the Awami League of Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman won in the East. The army's action in East Pakistan sent about 80 lakh refugees into India, putting economic and humanitarian pressure on the country. In July 1971, US National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger made a secret visit to China through Pakistan, a sign of a US–Pakistan–China understanding. India responded in August 1971 with a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union, which gave assurance of Soviet support if India were attacked. War broke out in December. Within about ten days, the Indian army surrounded Dhaka from three sides and a Pakistani force of about 90,000 surrendered. India declared a unilateral ceasefire, and Bangladesh emerged as a new country.

The Shimla Agreement. In July 1972, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Z. A. Bhutto signed the Shimla Agreement, which formalised peace and committed both sides to settling disputes bilaterally.

Pause and predict: The Tashkent Agreement and the Shimla Agreement both ended wars with Pakistan. How do you keep them apart?

Check your answer: Tashkent (January 1966) ended the 1965 war, was signed by Shastri and Ayub Khan and was brokered by the USSR. Shimla (July 1972) ended the 1971 war, was signed by Indira Gandhi and Bhutto and was bilateral, with no mediator.

Kargil. In 1999, forces described as Mujahideen occupied positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control at Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar and Batalik. The confrontation lasted May–June 1999 and came one year after both countries became nuclear capable.

India's nuclear policy

India's nuclear programme began in the late 1940s under Homi J. Bhabha. China tested a nuclear device in 1964. The five nuclear weapon powers of the time wished to limit others, and in 1968 the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was concluded. India considered it discriminatory and refused to sign, and later opposed its indefinite extension in 1995. India also refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).

Beyond the textbook. For the exam: the 1974 test is the first explosion and the 1998 tests followed, with the doctrine of credible minimum deterrence and no first use. In reality: the two tests are often confused because both took place at Pokhran, but they belong to different decades, and the term "peaceful" belongs only to 1974. Why it matters: a question that says "first nuclear test" has only one correct year.

Shifting alliances

The Janata Party government of 1977 announced a policy of genuine non-alignment, intended to correct what it saw as a tilt towards the Soviet Union. After 1990, the Soviet Union no longer existed, and India's partnerships changed, with relations with the United States growing closer.

Key people and terms

Timeline

Exam traps

60-second revision

Where this chapter connects

• Previous: Politics of Planned Development explains the push for self-reliance behind India's choices abroad.
• Next: Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System takes up domestic politics in the 1960s, when the wars and economic stress shaped the Congress.
• Class XII link: The End of Bipolarity explains the collapse of the Soviet Union that changed India's alliances after 1990.
• Class XII link: Contemporary South Asia places India's relations with Pakistan and Bangladesh in the regional setting.
• Class XII link: Security in the Contemporary World develops the nuclear weapons issue.