Regional Aspirations

2.1 Core concepts

• Indian approach to diversity: The Indian nation does not deny the rights of different regions and linguistic groups to retain their own culture; it seeks to balance unity with diversity, unlike European countries where cultural diversity was treated as a threat to the nation (NCERT §"Indian approach", p. 113).
• Democratic accommodation: Democracy allows political expression of regional aspirations and does not treat them as anti-national; democratic politics simultaneously strengthens regional aspirations and accommodates them in policy making (NCERT §"Indian approach", pp. 113–114).
• Early areas of tension: Partition, displacement, integration of Princely States, Kashmir, Naga and Mizo demands for separation, Dravidian movement, anti-Hindi agitation in Tamil Nadu, pro-Hindi agitation in the north, and linguistic-states agitations — leading to creation of Punjab/Haryana (1966) and later Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand (NCERT §"Areas of tension", p. 114).
• Jammu & Kashmir — three regions: Jammu (foothills/plains, Hindu majority), Kashmir Valley (Kashmiri-Muslim majority), and Ladakh (mountainous, almost equally Buddhist and Muslim) (NCERT §"Jammu and Kashmir", p. 115).
• Roots of the J&K problem: Pre-1947 Princely State under Maharaja Hari Singh; Pakistani tribal invasion October 1947 forced him to sign the Instrument of Accession; UN resolution dated 21 April 1948 proposed Pakistan's withdrawal, India's force reduction and a plebiscite; Sheikh Abdullah, leader of the secular National Conference, became Prime Minister of J&K in March 1948 and the State was granted provisional autonomy under Article 370 (NCERT §"Roots of the Problem"/§"External and internal disputes", pp. 115–119).
• Kashmiriyat and disputes: Externally Pakistan claims Kashmir; the part under Pakistan's illegal occupation is called Pakistan occupied Jammu and Kashmir (POJK). Internally, two opposite reactions to Article 370 — one demanding revocation for full integration, the other (mostly Kashmiris) feeling autonomy was not enough, demanding plebiscite, restoration of autonomy and proper democratic institutionalisation (NCERT §"External and internal disputes", p. 119).
• J&K politics 1953–2019: Sheikh Abdullah dismissed in 1953 and detained; 1965 constitutional change designated the head of government as "Chief Minister" (first CM: Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq); 1974 Indira–Sheikh accord; 1977 NC victory; Sheikh's death 1982 — Farooq Abdullah took over; 1987 election widely seen as rigged; 1989 onwards militant insurgency with Pakistani support; President's rule and army deployment; elections 1996, 2002 (PDP–Congress), 2008 (NC–INC, Omar Abdullah), 2014 (PDP–BJP, Mufti Mohammed Sayeed; Mehbooba Mufti became first woman CM in April 2016); President's rule June 2018; Article 370 abrogated on 5 August 2019 and the State reorganised into two Union Territories — Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh — by the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019 (NCERT §"Politics since 1948"/§"Insurgency and After"/§"2002 and Beyond", pp. 120–122).
• Punjab — context: Reorganisation on linguistic lines came late — Punjabi-speaking State carved out only in 1966 (Punjab + Haryana + areas to Himachal). Akali Dal, formed 1920 as Sikh political wing, led the Punjabi-Suba movement. Akalis came to power in 1967 and 1977 in coalition governments (NCERT §"Punjab"/§"Political context", p. 122).
• Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973): Asserted regional autonomy, wanted to redefine centre–state relations, spoke of Sikh qaum and bolbala — essentially a plea for strengthening federalism in India; had limited mass appeal initially (NCERT §"Political context", p. 123).
• Cycle of violence in Punjab: Akali movement shifted to extremist elements; militants used the Golden Temple as headquarters; in June 1984 the government launched Operation Blue Star; PM Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984 by her Sikh bodyguards, triggering anti-Sikh violence in Delhi and elsewhere (more than 2,000 Sikhs killed in the capital); PM Manmohan Singh apologised in Parliament in 2005 (NCERT §"Cycle of violence", pp. 123–124).
• Rajiv Gandhi–Longowal Accord (Punjab Accord), July 1985: Chandigarh to be transferred to Punjab, a commission for Punjab–Haryana border, tribunal for Ravi-Beas waters among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, compensation/treatment for militancy-affected, and withdrawal of AFSPA in Punjab. Peace returned by mid-1990s; 1992 election saw only 24% turnout; 1997 election won by Akali Dal (Badal)–BJP alliance (NCERT §"Road to peace", p. 125).
• The North-East — geography & demography: Eight States (the seven sisters — Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya — plus Sikkim as the "brother"); 4% of population but about twice that share of area; connected to rest of India by a corridor of about 22 km; shares borders with China, Myanmar and Bangladesh (NCERT §"The North-East", p. 126).
• Reorganisation of the North-East: Nagaland 1963; Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya 1972; Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh became separate States only in 1987. Three dominant issues: demands for autonomy, secession movements, and opposition to 'outsiders' (NCERT §"The North-East", pp. 126–127).
• Autonomy demands: Non-Assamese tribal communities formed Eastern India Tribal Union (later All Party Hill Leaders Conference, 1960) — leading to creation of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh. In Assam, Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas demand statehood; Karbis and Dimasas were granted autonomy under District Councils; Bodos received an Autonomous Council (NCERT §"Demands for autonomy", p. 127).
• Mizo secession & accord: Mizo Hills made an autonomous district within Assam after independence; failure of Assam government to handle the 1959 famine fuelled secessionism; Mizo National Front under Laldenga began armed campaign in 1966; two-decade insurgency, including use of Air Force; 1986 peace agreement between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga — full statehood with special powers and Laldenga as Chief Minister. Mizoram today is one of the most peaceful and literate States (NCERT §"Secessionist movements", pp. 127–128).
• Nagaland: Angami Zapu Phizo and the Naga National Council declared independence in 1951; armed struggle for sovereignty; a section of Nagas signed an agreement with the Government of India but other rebels rejected it — final resolution still pending (NCERT §"Secessionist movements", pp. 128–129).
• Assam Movement against 'outsiders' (1979–1985): Led by All Assam Students' Union (AASU); against illegal Bengali Muslim migrants from Bangladesh, faulty voters' rolls, drain of resources (oil, tea, coal). Demanded that all who entered after 1951 be sent back. Assam Accord 1985 signed with Rajiv Gandhi government — those who migrated during/after the Bangladesh war to be identified and deported. AASU/Asom Gana Sangram Parishad formed Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) and came to power in 1985. Problem of immigration continued (NCERT §"Movements against outsiders", pp. 129–130).
• Tripura/Mizoram/Arunachal: In Tripura the original inhabitants have been reduced to a minority; same hostility shown toward Chakma refugees in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (NCERT §"Movements against outsiders", p. 130).
• Sikkim's merger (1975): Sikkim was a 'protectorate' — defence and foreign relations with India, internal administration with the Chogyal. Majority population Nepali but Chogyal was Lepcha-Bhutia. First democratic elections 1974 swept by Sikkim Congress (Kazi Lhendup Dorji); assembly asked first for 'associate state' and then in April 1975 for full integration; a referendum confirmed this; Sikkim became the 22nd State of the Indian Union in 1975 (NCERT §"Sikkim's merger", p. 131).
• Lessons (Accommodation and National Integration): (i) regional aspirations are a normal part of democratic politics; (ii) democratic negotiation works better than suppression; (iii) power-sharing at both State and national level is essential; (iv) regional economic imbalance fuels alienation. The federal system in India is flexible — special provisions for J&K (Article 370 till 2019) and the North-East (including the Sixth Schedule which gives tribes autonomy over customary laws) (NCERT §"Accommodation and National Integration", pp. 131–132).
• Goa (box feature): Portuguese ruled Goa, Diu and Daman from the 16th century, refused to withdraw in 1947; liberated by Indian army action in December 1961 after barely two days. Initially a Union Territory. 1967 'opinion poll' asked whether Goa should merge with Maharashtra — majority rejected merger; Goa became a State in 1987 (NCERT §"Goa's liberation", p. 133).

2.2 Definitions to memorise

2.3 Diagrams / processes to remember

• Map showing Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh after the 2019 reorganisation (p. 115).
• Timeline (implicit) of NE statehood: Nagaland 1963 → Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya 1972 → Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh 1987 (pp. 126–127).
• Photograph/illustration of Operation Blue Star aftermath and the December 1985 Rajiv-Longowal Accord context (pp. 123–125).
• Photographs of Sheikh Abdullah, Master Tara Singh, Sant Harchand Singh Longowal, Laldenga, Angami Zapu Phizo, Kazi Lhendup Dorji, Rajiv Gandhi, E.V. Ramasami 'Periyar' — match the leader to the movement (pp. 116, 118, 122, 127, 129, 131, 132).
• Map/illustration on p. 130 showing geography of regional movements (Punjab, Darjeeling, Delhi, Mizoram, etc.).

2.5 Key Articles / Treaties / Events

2.4 Common confusions / NTA trap points

• Mizoram vs Manipur vs Meghalaya statehood years — only Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh became States in 1987; Manipur/Tripura/Meghalaya in 1972; Nagaland (the earliest) in 1963.
• Punjab Accord parties — signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Harchand Singh Longowal (NOT Bhindranwale, NOT Master Tara Singh), in July 1985.
• Mizo Accord parties — between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga (1986), not Indira Gandhi.
• Sheikh Abdullah's role — became Prime Minister of J&K in March 1948 (the head was called "Prime Minister" — designation changed to "Chief Minister" only by the 1965 constitutional amendment; first CM was Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq, NOT Sheikh Abdullah).
• Article 370 dates — granted provisional autonomy initially; abrogated on 5 August 2019 by the J&K Reorganisation Act 2019, creating UTs of J&K and Ladakh.
• Sikkim's status — was a protectorate (not a princely state and not fully sovereign); became the 22nd State of the Indian Union in 1975 after the April 1975 assembly resolution and referendum.
• Goa — liberated in December 1961 (NOT 1947); the 1967 opinion poll was about merger with Maharashtra, not about independence; became a State only in 1987.
• Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973) is often confused with the Punjab Accord (1985) — the first is an Akali resolution on autonomy, the second is the central-government accord with Longowal.