Patterns of Social Inequality and Exclusion

2.1 Core concepts

• The family, caste, tribe and the market — the social institutions considered in earlier chapters from the viewpoint of forming communities and sustaining society — are now considered in their role in creating and sustaining patterns of inequality and exclusion (NCERT §intro, p. 69).
• Social inequality and exclusion are facts of life: beggars in streets and on railway platforms; young children labouring as domestic workers, construction helpers, cleaners and helpers in dhabas; we are not surprised at small children working in middle-class urban homes; we read news of caste discrimination in schools, violence against women, prejudice against minority groups and the differently abled (NCERT §intro, p. 70).
• This "everydayness" makes inequality appear inevitable, almost natural; when we do recognise it as unjust, we often think of it as "deserved" — blaming the poor for their plight. A closer examination shows few work harder than those at the lower ranks. The South American proverb: "If hard labour were really such a good thing, the rich would keep it all for themselves!" (NCERT §intro, p. 70).
• What is "social" about social inequality and exclusion (§5.1)? Three broad answers: (i) they are about groups, not individuals; (ii) they are social, not purely economic, though linked to economics; (iii) they are systematic and structured — there is a definite pattern (NCERT §5.1, p. 71).
• Bourdieu's three forms of capital (1986): in every society some have a greater share of valued resources — money, property, education, health, power. These are social resources divided into (a) Economic capital — material assets and income; (b) Cultural capital — educational qualifications and status; (c) Social capital — networks of contacts and social associations. These forms overlap and can be converted into each other — a person from a well-off family (economic capital) can afford expensive higher education (cultural capital); someone with influential relatives (social capital) may get a well-paid job through recommendations (NCERT §5.1, p. 71).
• Social inequality = patterns of unequal access to social resources. Some inequality reflects innate differences (intelligence, talent, effort), but by and large inequality is not the outcome of innate/'natural' differences but is produced by the society in which people live (NCERT p. 72).
• Social stratification = system by which categories of people in a society are ranked in a hierarchy that shapes identity, experience, relations and access to resources. Three key principles (NCERT pp. 71–72): 1. Stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply a function of individual differences. Society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people; in technologically primitive (hunting-gathering) societies, little was produced so only rudimentary stratification could exist; technologically advanced societies producing surplus distribute resources unequally regardless of innate ability. 2. Stratification persists over generations — closely linked to the family and inheritance of social resources; a person's social position is ascribed (children assume parents' positions). Within caste, birth dictates occupational opportunities. Ascription is reinforced by endogamy — marriage restricted to members of the same caste, ruling out the blurring of caste lines through inter-caste marriage. 3. Stratification is supported by patterns of belief or ideology. No system persists over generations unless widely viewed as fair or inevitable. The caste system is justified through the opposition of purity and pollution — Brahmins designated most superior, Dalits most inferior, by virtue of birth and occupation. People with the greatest social privileges express the strongest support for systems of stratification like caste and race; those at the bottom are most likely to challenge it.
• Prejudices are pre-conceived opinions or attitudes held by members of one group towards another — literally 'pre-judgement', formed in advance of familiarity with the subject, based on hearsay, resistant to change even in the face of new information. Prejudice can be positive or negative (a person may be prejudiced in favour of his/her own caste without evidence) (NCERT §5.1, p. 73).
• Stereotypes = fixed and inflexible characterisations of a group; often applied to ethnic/racial groups and women. In India many stereotypes are partly colonial creations — some communities characterised as 'martial races', others as effeminate or cowardly, yet others as untrustworthy. Stereotypes refuse to recognise variation across individuals and across contexts or time — they treat an entire community as a single person with a single trait (NCERT p. 73).
• Discrimination refers to actual behaviour (not just attitude) — practices that disqualify members of one group from opportunities open to others, as when a person is refused a job because of gender or religion. Discrimination is very hard to prove because it may not be open or explicitly stated, and is often presented as motivated by more justifiable reasons (e.g., "less qualified", "selection done purely on merit") (NCERT pp. 73–74).
• Social exclusion refers to ways in which individuals may become cut off from full involvement in wider society — preventing them from having opportunities open to the majority. A full active life requires not only food, clothing and shelter, but also access to education, health, transportation, insurance, social security, banking, the police and judiciary. Social exclusion is not accidental but systematic — the result of structural features of society. Legislation alone cannot break it; constant social campaigns to change awareness are required (NCERT p. 74).
• Four groups suffer serious inequality and exclusion: Dalits (ex-untouchable castes), Adivasis ('tribal' communities), Women, and the Differently Abled; transgender and third-gender groups are added in Box 5.1a (NCERT p. 74).
• Box 5.1a — Transgender and Third Gender (p. 75): self-identification as third gender is based on self-understanding; gender was earlier thought to be unchanging identity, but the third-gender community has gained legal recognition in India and the right to contest elections.
• §5.2 Caste and Tribe — systems justifying and perpetuating inequality. The caste system legitimises discrimination against people born into particular castes through humiliating, exclusionary and exploitative practices. Historically classified by occupation and status; people were 'born into' caste — no choice. Brahmins (highest ritual caste) were not supposed to amass wealth and were subordinated to the secular power of Kshatriya kings; despite secular power, the king was subordinated to the Brahmin in the ritual-religious sphere (compare apartheid in Box 5.1b) (NCERT pp. 75–76).
• Box 5.1b — Race and Caste / Apartheid: Just as caste in India, race in South Africa stratifies society into a hierarchy. Apartheid became law in 1948 — every individual was classified by race and mixed marriages prohibited. After a long struggle led by the African National Congress and Nelson Mandela, apartheid was abolished. Mandela's Rivonia Trial speech (20 April 1964) — "I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die" (NCERT Box 5.1b, pp. 76–77).
• In actual historical practice the caste-class correlation is still remarkably stable at the macro level — the privileged sections are overwhelmingly 'upper' caste, the disadvantaged dominated by so-called 'lower' castes; the proportion of population in poverty or affluence differs greatly across caste groups (Tables 1 & 2, pp. 77–78) (NCERT §5.2, p. 76).
• Table 1 — % below poverty line, 2011–12 (rural / urban): Scheduled Tribes 45.3 / 24.1; Scheduled Castes 31.5 / 21.7; FC (Forward Castes) 15.5 / 8.1; OBCs 22.7 / 15.4; Muslims 26.9 / 22.7; Hindus 25.6 / 12.1; Christians 22.2 / 5.5; Sikhs 6.2 / 5.0 (lowest); ALL groups 25.4 / 13.7 (NCERT p. 77).
• Table 2 — % affluent, 1999–2000 (rural / urban): Scheduled Tribes 1.4 / 1.8; Scheduled Castes 1.7 / 0.8; OBCs 3.3 / 2.0; Muslim 2.0 / 1.6; Hindu 8.6 / 8.2; Christian 18.9 / 17.0; Sikh 31.7 / 15.1 (highest rural); Others 17.9 / 14.4; ALL groups 4.3 / 4.5 (NCERT p. 78).
• Untouchability is an extreme and particularly vicious aspect of caste — 'untouchables' considered so impure that their mere touch pollutes others; 'distance pollution' existed in many regions (especially the south) such that even mere presence or shadow of an untouchable was considered polluting. Three main dimensions of untouchability — equally important in defining the phenomenon: (i) exclusion (e.g., from drinking water sources, collective religious worship, social ceremonies); (ii) humiliation-subordination; (iii) exploitation (forced/unpaid/under-paid labour, confiscation of property). Untouchability is a pan-Indian phenomenon though its forms and intensity vary (NCERT §5.2, p. 79).
• Mahatma Gandhi popularised 'Harijan' (literally "children of God") in the 1930s to counter the pejorative charge of caste names. Ex-untouchable communities and their leaders coined another term, 'Dalit' — literally "downtrodden", conveying the sense of an oppressed people. Though it was neither coined by Dr. Ambedkar nor frequently used by him, the term certainly resonates with his philosophy. It received wide currency during the caste riots in Mumbai in the early 1970s when the Dalit Panthers, a radical group in western India, used it (NCERT pp. 79–80).
• State and non-state initiatives: the Indian state has had special programmes for SCs and STs since before Independence. The 'Schedules' listing castes and tribes recognised as deserving special treatment were drawn up in 1935 by the British Indian government. After Independence, the same policies continued; special programmes were extended to OBCs since the early 1990s (NCERT §5.2, p. 80).
• Reservations — the most important state initiative to compensate for caste discrimination — set aside seats for SCs/STs in State and Central legislatures (assemblies, Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha), government jobs across departments and PSUs, and educational institutions. The proportion of reserved seats equals the SC/ST share of total population; for OBCs the proportion is decided differently (NCERT p. 80).
• Key legislation:
• Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850 — disallowed curtailment of rights due solely to change of religion or caste (used to allow Dalit entry into government schools).
• Constitution of India, 1950 — abolished untouchability via Article 17 and introduced reservation provisions.
• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 — revised and strengthened legal provisions punishing acts of violence or humiliation against Dalits and adivasis.
• Constitution (93rd Amendment) Act, 2005 — became law on 23 January 2006 — introduced reservation for OBCs in institutions of higher education. Coincidentally both the 1850 law and the 2006 amendment related to education (NCERT pp. 80–81).
• Dalit assertion: from pre-Independence struggles led by Jyotiba Phule, Iyotheedas, Periyar, Ambedkar to contemporary political organisations like the Bahujan Samaj Party (UP) and Dalit Sangharsh Samiti (Karnataka). Dalits have made significant contributions to literature in Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Hindi (see Box 5.2 — Daya Pawar's poem "The City") (NCERT p. 82).
• Other Backward Classes (OBCs) — large group of service and artisanal castes occupying the lower rungs of caste hierarchy; the Constitution describes them as "socially and educationally backward classes". Like the category of 'tribe', OBCs are defined negatively — by what they are not — neither forward castes nor Dalits. Since caste has entered all major Indian religions, there are also Muslim/Christian/Sikh OBCs. First Backward Classes Commission = Kaka Kalelkar, submitted report in 1953 (sidelined). Second Backward Classes Commission = B.P. Mandal, appointed late 1970s after the Emergency by the Janata government; the Mandal report was implemented only in 1990 when the OBC issue became a major national political issue. Recent surveys show OBCs are about 41% of the national population. Large disparities between upper OBCs (landed, rurally dominant) and lower OBCs (very poor, often not different from Dalits in socio-economic terms); urban OBCs are much closer to SC/ST conditions than to upper castes (NCERT §5.2, pp. 82–83).
• Adivasi Struggles: like SCs, Scheduled Tribes are constitutionally recognised. The jana or tribes were 'people of the forest' whose distinctive habitat shaped them. Ecological isolation was never absolute — tribal groups had long association with Hindu society, making 'tribe'/'caste' boundaries porous. Today, barring the North-Eastern states, there are no areas inhabited exclusively by tribal people — only areas of tribal concentration (NCERT §5.2, p. 83).
• The impoverishment of adivasis can be traced to colonial accelerated resource extraction continued by independent India — from the late 19th century the colonial government reserved most forest tracts for its own use, severing adivasis' rights to use the forest for gathering produce and shifting cultivation. After 1947 the government's monopoly continued; capital-intensive industrialisation required mineral and power-generation resources concentrated in Adivasi areas. Adivasi lands were rapidly acquired for new mining and dam projects (Sardar Sarovar, Polavaram); millions of adivasis were displaced without appropriate compensation. Liberalisation since the 1990s deepened this trend. The achievement of statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh (carved out of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh) is a major adivasi achievement (NCERT §5.2, pp. 84–85).
• §5.3 Struggles of Women: gender inequality is social, not natural. The evidence: Khasis of Meghalaya (still matrilineal), Nairs of Kerala (used to be matrilineal — descent and inheritance through women), and many African societies where women have been successful farmers and traders — these defeat the natural-inequality view (NCERT §5.3, p. 85).
• 19th-century women's reformers:
• Raja Rammohun Roy — anti-sati campaign; founded Brahmo Samaj (1828).
• M.G. Ranade — widow remarriage movement in Bombay Presidency; cited Bishop Joseph Butler's writings and Hindu shastras.
• Jyotiba Phule — founded Satyashodak Samaj; simultaneous attack on caste and gender oppression.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan — reform of Muslim society and education.
• Dayanand Saraswati — founded Arya Samaj (NCERT pp. 86–87).
• Women's own writing: **Tarabai Shinde's Stree Purush Tulana (1882) — Maharashtrian housewife's protest against male double standards (Box 5.3). Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain's Sultana's Dream (1905) — likely the earliest Indian science fiction**, gender roles reversed: women run a world of science and technology while men stay confined (Box 5.4) (NCERT pp. 87–88).
• Karachi Session of INC, 1931 — issued the Fundamental Rights of Citizenship declaration committing to women's equality including universal adult suffrage and right to hold public office (NCERT p. 88).
• Phases of the women's movement: 19th century — sati, child marriage, widows' plight; 1970s — media representation, gendered development; 1980s — legal reform; 21st century — declining child sex ratio (NCERT p. 89).
• §5.4 The Struggles of the Differently Abled: the social model holds that people are disabled not by impairment alone but because society is built without accommodating them (Brisenden 1986). Five common (and challenged) assumptions about disability — that disability is biological, that the disabled are victims, that disabled status is central to self-perception, that the disabled are alike, that disability requires help. Activist Anita Ghai likens invisibility of the disabled to Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man (NCERT pp. 89–90).
• Disability–poverty link: malnutrition, frequent childbirths, poor immunisation, overcrowded homes raise disability incidence among the poor; disability in turn deepens poverty (NCERT pp. 90–92).
• Box 5.5 — Census 2011 approach to disability: collected information on eight types of disabilities (versus five in Census 2001), used a filter question, and brought the disability question forward in the schedule. Box 5.6 — Hindu report (2 August 2006) on "Disabled-unfriendly courts" (NCERT pp. 91–93).

2.2 Definitions to memorise

2.3 Diagrams / processes to remember

• Box 5.1a — Transgender and Third Gender: legal recognition in India, right to contest elections (p. 75).
• Box 5.1b — Race and Caste / Apartheid: 1948 legalisation; Mandela's Rivonia Trial speech (1964); abolition (p. 76–77).
• Table 1 — % below poverty line, 2011–12: ST highest in rural (45.3%); Sikh lowest (6.2 / 5.0) (p. 77).
• Table 2 — % affluent, 1999–2000: Sikh 31.7% rural; ALL 4.3 / 4.5 (p. 78).
• Box 5.2 — Daya Pawar's poem "The City" (Marathi Dalit literature) (p. 82).
• **Box 5.3 — Stree Purush Tulana excerpt** (Tarabai Shinde 1882) (p. 87).
• **Box 5.4 — Sultana's Dream excerpt** (Begum Rokeya 1905) (p. 88).
• Box 5.5 — Census 2011 disability approach (8 types vs 5 in 2001) (p. 91–92).
• Box 5.6 — Disabled-unfriendly courts (Hindu, 2 August 2006) (p. 93).
• 1931 Karachi Session declaration on women's equality: universal adult suffrage + right to public office (p. 88–89).
• Three principles of stratification triad (p. 72): society-wide / generational + ascription + endogamy / supported by ideology.
• Three dimensions of untouchability triad (p. 79): exclusion / humiliation-subordination / exploitation.

2.4 Common confusions / NTA trap points

• Harijan vs Dalit: Gandhi popularised "Harijan" in the 1930s; "Dalit" was popularised by the Dalit Panthers in early 1970s Mumbai — NCERT explicitly says it was not coined by Ambedkar.
• Prejudice vs Stereotype vs Discrimination: prejudice = attitude/opinion; stereotype = fixed image of a group (basis of prejudice); discrimination = actual behaviour. Easy to mix up.
• Kalelkar (1953) vs Mandal Commission: First Backward Classes Commission = Kaka Kalelkar (1953, sidelined); Second = B.P. Mandal (late 1970s, implemented 1990).
• 93rd Amendment date: passed 2005, became law on 23 January 2006 — for OBC reservation in higher education.
• Article 17 vs Article 14: Article 17 abolishes untouchability — distinct from general equality clauses.
• Matrilineal example: Nairs of Kerala — "used to be" matrilineal; Khasis of Meghalaya — "still are". NTA may flip these.
• Adivasi statehood: Jharkhand was carved from Bihar; Chhattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh — not the other way.
• Disability model: NCERT follows the social model — people are disabled by society, not just by impairment. Students often pick the biological/medical model as the textbook answer.
• Caste Disabilities Removal Act 1850 vs SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act 1989 — different roles; 1850 = entry to schools; 1989 = anti-atrocity punishment.
• Bourdieu's three capitals: economic, cultural, social — NOT "political" (common distractor).
• OBCs 41%: defined "negatively"; cut across religions including Muslim/Christian/Sikh OBCs.
• Census 2011 = 8 types of disabilities; Census 2001 = 5 — NTA may swap.
• Brahmo Samaj founding year: 1828 (Roy); Arya Samaj is Dayanand Saraswati.

2.5 Thinkers & theories