📌 Snapshot
- Why food that looks and smells fine can still make you ill: hazards, FSSAI, Codex, ISO and HACCP explained.
- The three hazard types, and how food infection (Salmonella) differs from food intoxication (Staphylococcus aureus).
- Toxicity, hazard, contamination and adulteration side by side, so the definition questions stop feeling alike.
- Four levels of food standards, Indian marks and laws, international bodies, GMP, GHP, HACCP and the practical adulteration tests.
📖 Detailed Notes
Written and reviewed by Anjali Sharma, Biology & Home Science faculty at UniDrill (M.Sc. Botany, Banaras Hindu University · 8 years teaching). Based on NCERT Home Science Class XII (Human Ecology and Family Sciences Part I), Chapter 5.
Can food smell perfect and still be unsafe?
Picture a wedding buffet at two in the afternoon. The paneer dish has been standing in a warm hall since noon. It smells good, looks good and tastes good. By night, several guests are ill. Nothing was visibly wrong, because some bacteria leave behind toxins that cannot be detected by smell, appearance or taste. This chapter is about the invisible side of food: what can go wrong, who sets the rules to prevent it, and how a food business stays one step ahead.
Food safety is not a small problem. The National Family Health Survey 2015–16 reported that more than 9 lakh children under five in India suffered from acute diarrhoea. Food-borne illness does more than make people sick. It damages trade and tourism, causes loss of earnings and unemployment, leads to litigation and slows economic growth, which is why food safety and quality matter worldwide.
Why food safety has become a bigger worry
At home, the person cooking knows the kitchen. Today, much of our food passes through many hands before it reaches us. Each change below adds a new place where something can go wrong.
| What has changed | Why it raises the risk |
|---|---|
| More people eat outside the home | Food is cooked in bulk, handled by many people and often prepared hours in advance, so it can spoil if stored badly |
| Many processed and packaged foods | The safety of foods you did not make yourself has to be assessed |
| Spices bought pre-packed and as ready mixes | Spices and oilseeds were once processed at home, so purity was never a worry; now the quality of even raw foodstuff matters |
| Long transport and storage chains | A long gap between processing and eating makes safety management in mass production and distribution critical |
| Microbes adapt, resist antibiotics and travel with people | Food-borne microbial disease is rising; nearly half of all known food-borne pathogens were discovered in the last 25 to 30 years |
| India is a signatory to the WTO non-tariff agreement | Greater access to world markets means every country must protect its own food quality and check imports |
| Pollution, pesticides and additives | Air, soil and water bring contaminants, and preservatives, colourants, flavours and stabilisers need to be analysed |
Food safety, toxicity and hazard: three words, three meanings
Food safety is the assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use. To understand it, you need two neighbouring ideas, and CUET loves to swap them.
| Term | Definition | Everyday picture |
|---|---|---|
| Toxicity | The capacity of a substance to produce harm or injury of any kind under any conditions | A pesticide is toxic in itself, whether or not it is anywhere near your food |
| Hazard | The relative probability that harm or injury will result when a substance is not used in the prescribed manner and quantity | A permitted food colour is fine at the allowed level; used in excess, it becomes a hazard |
| Food safety | Assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use | Food that is fit for the purpose you will use it for |
The one-line difference. Toxicity is what a substance can do. Hazard is how likely it is to do it in a given situation. Toxicity belongs to the substance, but hazard depends on how the substance is used.
Three kinds of hazard
A hazard can be physical, chemical or biological. The way to remember them: physical is something you could pick out with your fingers, chemical is a substance added on purpose or by accident, and biological is something alive.
| Hazard | What it is | Examples from the Indian kitchen and market |
|---|---|---|
| Physical | Any physical material not normally found in food, which causes illness or injury | Stones in dal or rice, hair, matchsticks, stapler pins, nails, bidi and cigarette bits, stems and seeds, bone fragments, jewellery, parts of pests |
| Chemical | Chemicals or harmful substances added intentionally or unintentionally | Pesticide residues, veterinary drug residues, cleaning chemicals, adulterants, toxic metals, PCBs, non-permissible additives, excess of permissible additives |
| Biological | Living organisms; those linked with food that cause disease are called food-borne pathogens | Visible: flies, cockroaches, weevils, caterpillars, worms. Invisible: bacteria, viruses, yeasts, moulds, protozoa |
Among the three, biological hazards are the most important cause of food-borne illness, and new pathogens keep appearing.
Food infection or food intoxication?
Microbial food-borne disease comes in two forms, and this pair is the most tested idea in the chapter. The easy way to separate them: in infection, the germ itself makes you ill after it grows inside you. In intoxication, the poison it left behind makes you ill, even if the germ is dead.
| Feature | Food infection (food poisoning) | Food intoxication |
|---|---|---|
| What causes illness | Live pathogenic organisms that multiply in the body | Toxins produced by bacteria and already present in the food |
| Classic example | Salmonella | Staphylococcus aureus |
| If the organism is killed | Heat destroys it, so thorough cooking protects you | The toxin stays in the food even after the organism is killed |
| Can you smell or taste it? | Not reliably | No. Toxins cannot be detected by smell, appearance or taste, so food that smells and looks good is not necessarily safe |
| When it develops | Survivors of inadequate cooking, or cross-contamination | When food has not been kept hot enough or cold enough |
| Where the organism lives | Intestinal tract of animals; raw milk and eggs | Air, dust, water; nasal passage, throat, skin and hair of about 50 per cent of healthy people |
| Symptoms mentioned | Diarrhoea, fever, abdominal cramps | Diarrhoea is one symptom |
How Salmonella reaches your plate. A cook cuts raw chicken on a chopping board and, without washing it, uses the same board for a salad that is never cooked. That is cross-contamination. Or an infected food handler does not wash hands with soap after using the toilet and then touches food. Salmonella can double its numbers every 20 minutes.
Beyond the textbook. For the exam: Salmonella doubles every 20 minutes. In reality: that is the fastest case, with warmth and plenty of nutrients. Even so, the arithmetic is sobering: starting from one cell, 12 doublings in four hours give 4,096 cells, and 24 doublings in eight hours give about 16.8 million. Why it matters: this is why leftovers should not sit on the counter and why food kept for hours in a warm hall is risky.
Pause and predict: a restaurant cooks chicken thoroughly, which kills Salmonella. Yet a customer who ordered only the salad still falls ill with Salmonella infection. How?
Check your answer: cross-contamination. The salad was never cooked, so nothing killed the bacteria, and they travelled from raw chicken to the salad through the shared board, knife or hands. Cooking protects only the food that is cooked.
Parasites cause infestation, for example the tapeworm that can be present in pork, and pests and insects can infest stored food as well.
Why new pathogens keep emerging
Four things drive the emergence of new pathogens: the human host (malnutrition, age and other conditions change susceptibility), animal hosts and how they interact with people, the pathogen itself (genetic exchange or mutation can create new strains) and the environment, including how food is produced, processed, handled and stored. New eating habits, climate, mass production, processing and the globalisation of the food supply expose new populations to new pathogens. Norovirus, Rotavirus and hepatitis E are the examples the chapter gives, and together they contribute to about 70 per cent of cases.
Contamination, adulteration and adulterants
These three terms are mixed up constantly in exams. Learn what each one is about.
| Term | Meaning | Think of it as |
|---|---|---|
| Contamination | Presence of harmful or objectionable foreign substances, such as chemicals, micro-organisms or dilutants, before, during or after processing or storage | Something unwanted got in |
| Adulteration | Lowering the quality of food either by adding inferior material or by extracting a valuable ingredient | Quality was cheated or lowered |
| Adulterants | Substances used that make the food unsafe for human consumption | The cheating material itself |
Adulteration includes deliberate addition or substitution, and also biological and chemical contamination during growth, storage, processing, transport and distribution. So the two ideas overlap, and the chapter treats contamination as one route to adulteration.
Why it matters. Many everyday cases fit these definitions: a harmful dye mixed into turmeric (adulterant added), ghee mixed with vanaspati (inferior material added) and light, hollow berries mixed into black pepper (inferior material added). You will meet all three in the practical tests below.
Food quality: safety comes first
Food quality means the attributes that influence a product's value to consumers. It has a negative side (spoilage, contamination, adulteration, safety hazards) and a positive side (colour, flavour, texture). It is a holistic concept that combines nutritional traits, sensory properties (colour, texture, shape, appearance, taste, flavour, odour), social considerations and safety.
Safety is the preliminary attribute and precursor of quality. A beautiful, tasty, nutritious dish that carries a hazard is not a quality dish.
Anyone who prepares, processes, packs or serves food should follow good manufacturing practices. Five points matter most: quality of raw materials and water, cleanliness (premises, personnel, equipment, preparation, storage and serving areas), storage at the right temperature, food hygiene and good service practices.
Food standards: four levels that work together
Standards bring quality into every step of food production and service and make trade between nations easier. Four levels are well coordinated.
| Level | Who sets it | Key point |
|---|---|---|
| Company standards | A company, for its own use | Normally copies of national standards |
| National standards | The national standards body; in India, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) | Applies across the country |
| Regional standards | Regional groups with similar geography and climate | Made by their own standardisation bodies |
| International standards | The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) | Common reference across nations |
Standards and laws in India
India has two kinds of tools: voluntary marks that a producer chooses to seek, and a law that applies to every food business.
| Instrument | What it covers | Voluntary or mandatory |
|---|---|---|
| ISI mark of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) | Processed foods | Voluntary certification |
| Agmark | Agricultural products, raw and processed | Voluntary certification |
| Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA), 1954 | Older law to prevent adulteration | Replaced by the new umbrella law |
| Fruit and Vegetable Product Order, Meat Food Products Order, Vegetable Oil Products Order | Specifications for fruit and vegetable products; licensing of meat products; specifications for vanaspati, margarine and shortenings | Consolidated under the new law |
| Food Safety and Standards Act (FSSA), 2006 | Integrates all earlier food laws; every food made in or imported into India must meet it | Mandatory |
Why FSSA was needed. Industry found it cumbersome to follow many separate laws, so the Government brought them under one umbrella. FSSAI was created under this Act to lay down science-based standards and to regulate the manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import of food. The Act also provides for hygienic conditions in and around manufacturing premises and for scientific assessment and management of risk, which the PFA did not specify. It reflects the world-wide shift from compositional (vertical) standards, which say what each product must contain, to safety (horizontal) standards, which govern safety across the whole food chain.
| What FSSAI does | In plain words |
|---|---|
| Frames regulations | Sets standards and guidelines for food articles and a system to enforce them |
| Accredits | Certification bodies for food safety management systems, and food laboratories |
| Gives scientific advice | Technical support to Central and State governments for policy and rules on food safety and nutrition |
| Collects data | Food consumption, biological risks, contaminants, residues, emerging risks, and a rapid alert system |
| Builds an information network | Rapid, reliable information for the public, consumers and Panchayats |
| Trains and promotes awareness | Training for people in food businesses; general awareness about food safety and standards |
| Contributes internationally | Development of international technical standards, including sanitary and phytosanitary standards |
Beyond the textbook. For the exam: FSSAI is established under FSSA 2006, not under the PFA 1954. In reality: you can see this law at work on a packet of biscuits or namkeen. Packaged foods in India carry the FSSAI logo and a licence or registration number, which shows the maker is covered by the Act. Why it matters: it gives you a practical way to remember that FSSAI is the single national regulator and that its authority is legal, while ISI and Agmark are voluntary.
International organisations
| Body | What it is | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) | An intergovernmental body | Sets international food standards to protect consumers and ease food and agricultural trade; Codex Alimentarius means "Food Code"; 187 member countries and one Member Organisation (European Community) in 2017; India is a member through the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare |
| International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) | A worldwide, non-governmental federation of national standards bodies | Promotes standardisation to ease international exchange of goods and services; ISO 9000 is the international reference for quality requirements and concerns the "quality management" of an organisation; adoption is voluntary |
| World Trade Organisation (WTO) | The body that helps trade flow | Established in 1995; helps trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly and predictably by administering trade agreements, settling disputes and assisting countries on trade policy; covers goods, services and intellectual property |
Codex documents include standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations, and different countries use Codex standards to develop their national standards.
| Codex | ISO |
|---|---|
| Used to develop national regulations | Voluntary |
| Slow to change | Standards reviewed every five years |
| Describes the minimal acceptable practices | Describes current standard industrial practices |
Beyond the textbook. For the exam: ISO 9000 is about quality management. In reality: ISO also has a food-specific standard for food safety management systems, known as ISO 22000. Codex was created jointly by FAO and WHO. Why it matters: the ISO 9000 number is the general quality-management family, so do not read it as a food-safety standard in an assertion-reason question.
Making rules work: food control
Standards on paper protect nobody. A good food control system needs two things. Food inspection checks that products meet standards, and government or municipal authorities appoint food inspectors for this. Analytical capability means well-equipped, accredited laboratories and trained staff who can detect contaminants, environmental chemicals, biotoxins, pathogenic bacteria, food-borne viruses and parasites.
Food safety management systems: GMP, GHP and HACCP
A hazard can enter food at any point in the food chain, so control must cover the whole chain. Three systems do this.
| System | Full form | What it does |
|---|---|---|
| GMP | Good Manufacturing Practices | A part of quality assurance: manufacturers and processors take proactive steps so products are safe; it reduces contamination and false labelling, so the consumer is not misled |
| GHP | Good Handling Practices | A comprehensive approach from farm to store or consumer that identifies sources of risk and steps to reduce contamination; ensures every person who handles food has good hygiene practices |
| HACCP | Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point | Examines raw materials and each step of a process for its chance of causing hazards, assesses where hazards can occur at each stage of the chain, and defines control measures |
Why HACCP is called preventive. Testing only the finished product is important but slow and expensive, and it finds a problem only after it has happened. HACCP lets you detect a hazard at any stage of processing and fix it right at that stage. It also helps producers, processors, distributors and exporters use resources efficiently and gives consistently good quality. Under FSSA 2006, the primary responsibility for safe food rests with producers and suppliers through HACCP, GMP and GHP.
Pause and predict: a sweet shop checks the temperature of its milk when it arrives and again when the milk is boiled, and discards milk that fails either check. Is this closer to HACCP or to end-product testing?
Check your answer: HACCP. The checks are made at specific steps of the process, so hazards are caught at the stage where they arise rather than after the sweets are made.
Spotting adulteration: the practical tests
The chapter's practicals teach simple tests. They are an easy way to score, because each has one reagent and one visible sign.
| Food tested | Adulterant looked for | Reagent | Sign of adulteration |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ghee | Vanaspati, which contains sesame oil | 1 per cent sucrose solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid | Pink colour shows sesame oil |
| Turmeric | Metanil yellow, a toxic colour | Concentrated hydrochloric acid | Pink to magenta colour |
| Milk and ice cream | Starch | Iodine solution | Blue colour |
| Asafoetida (hing) | Colophonial resins, which are not permitted | 0.5 per cent copper acetate solution with petroleum ether | Blue or green colour in the ether layer |
| Black pepper | Light berries extracted from black berries | Alcohol and water mixture | Berries that rise to the top and float; a higher percentage suggests adulteration |
| Tea leaves | Excess stalks | Boil the sample, pick out and weigh the stalks | Stalks should be less than 25 per cent |
The raw-food practical also looks for physical hazards: hair, stones, stems and seeds, matchsticks, stapler pins, bidis and cigarettes, camphor balls, worms and insect parts, mercury balls and infested grains.
Careers in food safety
The growth of the food industry has widened the field. Food-safety professionals need adequate knowledge of food chemistry, food processing and preservation, food analysis and quality control, and ideally food microbiology, food laws and sensory evaluation.
| Where | Roles |
|---|---|
| Regulatory and public health agencies | Food legislators, food safety officers (inspectors), food analysts and public analysts |
| Voluntary agencies | Agmark, BIS |
| Food industry | Quality control managers and laboratory analysts, HACCP team members and trainers, internal food auditors, R&D; large food industries and flight kitchens keep in-house quality control units |
| Self-employment | Analytical food laboratory, food safety consultancy, food safety and sanitation education |
| Other avenues | Quality certification such as ISO, teaching and academics, research, scientific writing |
Exam traps
| The trap | Why it is tempting | The truth |
|---|---|---|
| "Toxicity is the probability of harm." | Both words sound like "danger" | Toxicity is the capacity to cause harm; hazard is the probability of harm in a given use |
| "Staphylococcus aureus is the example of food infection." | Both bacteria cause diarrhoea | Salmonella is infection; Staphylococcus aureus is intoxication |
| "Cooking always makes food safe from intoxication." | Heat kills bacteria | The toxin remains even if the bacteria are killed, and it cannot be detected by smell, appearance or taste |
| "Contamination and adulteration mean the same." | Both lower quality | Contamination is presence of harmful foreign substances; adulteration is lowering quality by adding inferior material or removing a valuable ingredient |
| "ISI mark and Agmark are compulsory." | They appear on many packets | Both are voluntary certification schemes; ISI is for processed foods and Agmark for agricultural products |
| "FSSAI was set up under the PFA 1954." | Both deal with food adulteration | FSSAI was established under FSSA 2006, which consolidated the earlier laws |
| "ISO 9000 is the food safety standard." | It appears in food-quality discussions | ISO 9000 concerns quality management of an organisation |
| "HACCP means testing the final product." | Testing sounds like checking | HACCP is preventive and acts at the stage where the hazard arises |
60-second revision
| Topic | Lock this in |
|---|---|
| Toxicity vs hazard | Capacity to harm under any conditions vs probability of harm when misused |
| Hazards | Physical (stones, hair) · chemical (pesticides, additives) · biological (visible pests, invisible microbes) |
| Infection vs intoxication | Salmonella, live germs, doubles every 20 min · Staphylococcus aureus, toxin stays after germ dies |
| Contamination vs adulteration | Foreign substance present vs quality lowered by adding inferior or removing valuable ingredient |
| Food quality | Nutrition, sensory, social, safety · safety is the precursor |
| Standards | Company → National (FSSAI) → Regional → International (ISO, Codex) |
| Indian tools | ISI (processed) · Agmark (agricultural) · FSSA 2006 replaces PFA 1954 and the three Orders |
| Codex vs ISO | Codex: national regulations, slow, minimal practice · ISO: voluntary, reviewed every five years, current practice |
| Management systems | GMP · GHP · HACCP (preventive) |
| Practicals | Ghee pink · turmeric magenta · starch blue · hing blue or green · tea stalks under 25 per cent |
Where this chapter connects
- Previous in this unit: Food Processing and Technology shows how foods are processed and preserved, which is exactly where the safety systems in this chapter apply.
- Same unit: Public Nutrition and Health deals with population-level health, where food-borne diarrhoea and malnutrition meet.
- Consumer side: Consumer Education and Protection covers marks, labels and your rights when food is adulterated.
- Class XI base: Food, Nutrition, Health and Fitness gives the nutrition vocabulary that food quality builds on.
🎯 Practice MCQs
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Q1. A catering team prepares chicken curry and a raw onion and cucumber salad in the same kitchen, using one chopping board for raw chicken and then for the salad without cleaning it. Guests who ate only the salad develop diarrhoea, fever and abdominal cramps. This is best described as:
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: B
Live Salmonella from the raw chicken reached food that was never cooked, multiplied in the guests and caused the illness, which is food infection by cross-contamination. Intoxication would involve a toxin already formed in the food. No foreign object was present, so it is not a physical hazard, and nothing was added or removed to lower quality, so it is not adulteration.
Q2. Which statement correctly separates toxicity from hazard?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: B
Toxicity is the inherent capacity to harm, and hazard is the probability of harm in a particular use. Option A reverses the two. Option C is wrong because hazards are physical, chemical and biological. Option D invents a distinction that does not exist.
Q3. A food handler who carries Staphylococcus aureus in the nose touches the food, and the food is then left at a temperature that is neither hot enough nor cold enough. Why can the food still look and smell normal?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: A
Staphylococcus aureus is the example of food intoxication: the toxin it produces stays in the food and cannot be sensed. Salmonella is the example of infection and is not involved here. Option C is untrue, and option D confuses the hazard type.
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Q4. Match List I with List II. List I: (i) Contamination (ii) Adulteration (iii) Adulterants (iv) Food quality. List II: (p) Lowering food quality by adding inferior material or extracting a valuable ingredient (q) Presence of harmful or objectionable foreign substances before, during or after processing or storage (r) Substances that make food unsafe for human consumption (s) Attributes that influence a product's value to consumers, integrating nutrition, sensory properties, social considerations and safety
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: B
Contamination is the presence of foreign substances (q), adulteration is lowering quality by adding or removing ingredients (p), adulterants are the unsafe substances (r), and food quality is the holistic value to the consumer (s). The other options swap contamination and adulteration or misplace adulterants.
Q5. In India, which pairing of a voluntary certification mark and the products it covers is correct?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: C
BIS runs the ISI mark for processed foods, and Agmark is the voluntary certification of agricultural products, both raw and processed. Options A and B swap the two schemes. Option D is wrong because FSSAI is the statutory regulator under the Food Safety and Standards Act and not a spice certification.
Q6. Consider the statements about the Food Safety and Standards Act (FSSA), 2006. I. It brought different laws on food safety under one umbrella. II. It established FSSAI to lay down science-based standards. III. It reflects a shift from safety (horizontal) standards to compositional (vertical) standards. IV. It places primary responsibility for safe food on producers and suppliers through HACCP, GMP and GHP. Which are correct?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: B
Statements I, II and IV are correct. Statement III is reversed: the Act reflects a shift from compositional (vertical) standards to safety (horizontal) standards.
Q7. A company writes its own standards for its snack factory and, in practice, they are mostly copies of the standards issued by the national body. In the four levels of food standards, these are:
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: C
Company standards are prepared by a company for its own use and are normally copies of national standards. National standards are issued by the national body, which is FSSAI in India. Regional standards come from regional groups with similar geography and climate, and international standards are published by ISO and the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
Q8. Which statement about Codex and ISO is NOT correct?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: D
India is a member of Codex through the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, so D is incorrect and is the answer. Statements A, B and C reproduce the Codex and ISO comparison correctly.
Q9. A student adds concentrated hydrochloric acid to a turmeric sample in a test tube, and a pink to magenta colour develops. This indicates the presence of:
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: C
Pink to magenta colour with concentrated hydrochloric acid shows metanil yellow, a toxic adulterant in turmeric. Starch gives a blue colour with iodine, sesame oil in ghee gives a pink colour with sucrose and hydrochloric acid, and colophonial resins in asafoetida show blue or green colour with copper acetate and petroleum ether.
Q10. Assertion (A): HACCP is considered a preventive approach to food safety. Reason (R): It evaluates raw materials and each step of a process for its potential to cause hazards, so action can be taken at the stage where the problem occurs.
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: A
HACCP examines every step and acts where the hazard arises, which is exactly why it is preventive, so R explains A. End product testing, in contrast, finds problems only after they have occurred.
Q11. A dairy tests every packet of its finished product in a laboratory and rejects unsafe ones. A consultant advises it to also monitor the process at each stage and fix problems at the stage where they arise. Which system is the consultant describing?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: C
HACCP identifies hazards and their chances of occurring at each stage of the food chain and defines control measures there. ISI and Agmark are voluntary product certification marks, and the 1954 Act is an older law that was consolidated into the Food Safety and Standards Act.
Q12. Which of the following is a correct statement about the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in this chapter?
▸ Show answer & explanation
Answer: A
WTO was established in 1995 and administers trade agreements and settles disputes. ISO 9000 is published by ISO, and ISO is the non-governmental federation of national standards bodies. The Codex Alimentarius is published by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
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