Recent Developments in Indian Politics

2.1 Core concepts

• Context of the 1990s — five developments at the end of the 1980s that left a long-lasting impact: (i) defeat of Congress in 1989, (ii) rise of the Mandal issue, (iii) new economic reforms, (iv) Ram Janmabhoomi temple dispute, and (v) assassination of Rajiv Gandhi (NCERT §Context of the 1990s, pp. 137–139). These together produced a structurally different politics — coalition-based, ideologically plural, regionally negotiated.
• Defeat of Congress, 1989. Congress fell from 415 seats (1984) to 197 seats; even though it returned to power in 1991, the 1989 election ended the "Congress system" and the party lost its earlier centrality in the party system. Many parties have since formed governments, none with the kind of dominance Congress earlier had (NCERT §Context of the 1990s, p. 137).
• Rise of the Mandal issue. The National Front government in 1990 decided to implement the Mandal Commission's recommendation reserving central-government jobs for OBCs; this triggered violent anti-Mandal protests in north India and reshaped politics from 1989 onward. From this point caste-based mobilisation, OBC political assertion, and reservation politics became permanent features of national politics (NCERT §Context of the 1990s, p. 137).
• New economic reforms. A structural adjustment programme begun in the closing months of the Rajiv Gandhi government became visible in 1991 under PM P. V. Narasimha Rao, with Manmohan Singh as Finance Minister. The programme involved a sharp reorientation away from the model India had followed since Independence — opening up the economy, removing licensing, encouraging private and foreign capital. Subsequent governments have continued these policies despite criticism (NCERT §Context of the 1990s, p. 138).
• Ram Janmabhoomi issue. The centuries-old dispute over Shri Ram's birthplace in Ayodhya transformed discourse on secularism and democracy; it culminated in the construction of the Ram Temple at Ayodhya following the constitutional-bench verdict of the Supreme Court on November 9, 2019 (NCERT §Context of the 1990s, p. 139; §From Legal Proceedings to Amicable Acceptance, p. 149). NCERT discusses both the political dispute and the legal closure.
• Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi (May 1991). He was assassinated by a Sri Lankan Tamil linked to the LTTE during an election campaign tour in Tamil Nadu; Congress emerged as the single largest party in 1991 and chose Narasimha Rao as Prime Minister (NCERT §Context of the 1990s, p. 139).
• Era of Coalitions begins (1989). Congress had no majority and sat in opposition; the National Front (Janata Dal + regional parties) formed a coalition government with outside support from the BJP and the Left Front, who did not join it. This was the first time two such ideologically opposed forces supported the same government from outside — a coalition signature of the 1990s (NCERT §Era of Coalitions, p. 140).
• Multi-party system after 1989. No single party secured a clear majority of seats in any Lok Sabha election held between 1989 and 2014; regional parties played a crucial role in forming ruling alliances. The BJP got a clear majority on its own in 2014 and 2019, though it continued to lead the NDA (NCERT §Decline of Congress, p. 141).
• Alliance politics in the 1990s. In 1996, the United Front (Janata Dal + regional parties) came to power supported by the Congress (and not by the BJP), illustrating unstable political equations. The BJP led an NDA coalition from May 1998 to June 1999 and was re-elected in October 1999 under Atal Behari Vajpayee; the 1999 government completed its full term — a milestone, since it was the first non-Congress government to complete a full five years (NCERT §Alliance politics, pp. 141–142).
• Rise of Other Backward Classes. The Janata Party government (1977) was the first national expression of OBC politics; the Janata Dal in the 1980s carried this combination forward. NCERT places this in a long arc — backward-class mobilisation began with the lower-caste movements of the colonial period and reached national political voice only after the 1980s (NCERT §Political Rise of Other Backward Classes, pp. 144–145).
• Mandal Commission. Officially the Second Backward Classes Commission, set up in 1978 under B. P. Mandal; submitted its report in 1980 recommending that "backward classes" be understood as "backward castes" and reserving 27% of seats in educational institutions and government jobs for them, plus other recommendations like land reforms (NCERT §The Mandal Commission box, p. 146). The Commission's recognition of caste — rather than only economic criteria — became politically decisive.
• Implementation and Indra Sawhney case. In August 1990 the National Front government implemented the reservation recommendation for OBCs in central-government jobs; the decision was challenged in the Supreme Court (Indra Sawhney case) and in November 1992 the Court upheld the government's decision, while introducing the "creamy layer" exclusion (NCERT §The Mandal Commission box, p. 146).
• Rise of Dalit politics. BAMCEF (Backward and Minority Communities Employees Federation) was formed in 1978; from it emerged the Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti (DS-4) and later the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) under Kanshi Ram in 1984. BSP achieved a breakthrough in Uttar Pradesh in the 1989 and 1991 elections — the first time a Dalit-led party had this kind of political success in independent India (NCERT §Political fallouts, p. 147).
• Kanshi Ram (1934–2006). Proponent of Bahujan empowerment; founder of BAMCEF, DS-4 and BSP; regarded political power as the master key to social equality. His strategy of building Dalit political organisation distinct from Congress patronage transformed the politics of Uttar Pradesh and the Hindi belt (NCERT §Kanshi Ram profile, p. 147).
• Communalism and the BJP. After the break-up of the Janata Party, supporters of the erstwhile Jana Sangh formed the BJP in 1980; it initially adopted "Gandhian Socialism" plus cultural nationalism but did poorly in 1984, winning only two seats. After 1986 the BJP began emphasising nationalism and pursuing the politics of Hindutva (NCERT §Communalism, Secularism, Democracy, p. 148).
• Hindutva. Popularised by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar; to be Indian one must accept India as one's fatherland (pitrubhu) and holy land (punyabhu). Believers hold that a strong nation rests on a united national culture (NCERT §Communalism, Secularism, Democracy, p. 148).
• Shah Bano case (1985). A 62-year-old divorced Muslim woman filed for maintenance under the criminal code; the Supreme Court ruled in her favour. The government then passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, nullifying the judgment in deference to opposition from sections of the Muslim community. The BJP criticised this as "appeasement" of minorities (NCERT §Communalism, Secularism, Democracy, p. 148).
• Ayodhya issue. A three-dome structure (the Babri Masjid) was built at the disputed site in 1528; it was sealed in 1949 due to court proceedings. In 1986 the Faizabad (now Ayodhya) district court ordered the structure to be unlocked for worship. Shilaanyas was performed but further construction remained prohibited. In 1992 the structure was demolished, triggering communal violence in several parts of the country (NCERT §Ayodhya Issue, pp. 148–149).
• Supreme Court verdict (November 9, 2019). A 5–0 unanimous verdict of a constitutional bench allotted the disputed site to the Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teertha Kshetra Trust for construction of the Ram temple and directed allotment of an appropriate site to the Sunni Central Waqf Board for a mosque (NCERT §From Legal Proceedings to Amicable Acceptance, p. 149).
• Lok Sabha Elections 2004–2019. In 2004 the NDA was defeated and the UPA (Congress-led) came to power with Left Front support; the UPA completed its term despite the Left withdrawing support in July 2008 over the Indo-US nuclear deal. In 2009, Congress rose from 145 to 206 seats and Manmohan Singh became PM for a second term. In 2014, BJP won 282 seats — the first single-party majority in 30 years — under Narendra Modi (declared PM candidate in September 2013). In 2019, BJP won 303 seats (NCERT §Lok Sabha Elections 2004–2019, pp. 151–152).
• Growing consensus — four elements. (i) agreement on new economic policies; (ii) acceptance of political and social claims of backward castes (all parties support reservation); (iii) acceptance of the role of State-level parties in national governance; (iv) emphasis on pragmatism over ideology — e.g., most NDA partners did not agree with the BJP's Hindutva ideology yet formed government with it (NCERT §Growing consensus, pp. 152–154). This consensus, makes Indian politics now structurally different from the Congress-system phase.

2.2 Definitions to memorise

2.3 Diagrams / processes to remember

• Cartoon of the "roller coaster" of 1990s politics showing Rajiv Gandhi, V. P. Singh, L. K. Advani, Chandrashekhar, Jyoti Basu, N. T. Rama Rao, Devi Lal, P. K. Mahanta and K. Karunanidhi — illustrates the ups and downs of various political parties in the 1990s (p. 137).
• R. K. Laxman cartoon of Manmohan Singh with Narasimha Rao in the initial phase of the New Economic Policy (p. 138).
• Sudhir Tailang cartoon showing the National Front government led by V. P. Singh supported by Jyoti Basu (Left) and L. K. Advani (BJP) (p. 140).
• Ajit Ninan cartoon depicting the change from one-party dominance to multi-party alliance system (p. 142).
• Table: Central Governments since 1989 — list of Prime Ministers and their tenures (p. 143).
• Charts: Party Position (seats) and Vote Share in Lok Sabha comparing Congress, BJP and Janata "family" of parties (pp. 150–151).
• Party Position in 17th Lok Sabha illustration (p. 155).
• Process chain — Ayodhya: 1528 structure → 1949 sealed → 1986 unlocked → Shilaanyas → 1992 demolition → 9 November 2019 SC 5–0 verdict.
• Process chain — Mandal: 1978 set up → 1980 report → August 1990 implemented → November 1992 upheld in Indra Sawhney.

2.5 Key Articles / Treaties / Events

2.4 Common confusions / NTA trap points

• Confusing the year the Mandal Commission was set up (1978), reported (1980), implemented (August 1990), and upheld by the Supreme Court (November 1992).
• Mixing up the National Front (1989, V. P. Singh) with the United Front (1996) — both had Janata Dal and regional parties, but the BJP supported only the 1989 one; the Congress supported only the 1996 one.
• Confusing BAMCEF (1978), DS-4 and BSP (founded 1984) — all linked to Kanshi Ram.
• Remembering that the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act was passed in 1986 to nullify the Shah Bano (1985) judgment, not the other way round.
• Confusing the 2014 number (BJP 282, first single-party majority in 30 years) with 2019 (BJP 303).
• The Supreme Court verdict on the Ayodhya dispute was a 5–0 unanimous constitutional-bench decision on November 9, 2019 — not a split verdict.
• BJP was formed in 1980 (out of the post-Janata break-up); the Jana Sangh is its earlier avatar — not the same party.
• Rajiv Gandhi assassinated in May 1991, in Tamil Nadu, by an LTTE-linked assailant — not in Delhi.
• Congress won 197 seats in 1989 (down from 415 in 1984), and rose to 206 in 2009 under UPA-II.
• The Left withdrew support to UPA-I in July 2008 over the Indo-US nuclear deal, not the WTO or any other issue.